Abstract
Increasing evidence has suggested an important role for environmental factors such as exposure to pesticides in the pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease. In experimental animals the exposure to a common herbicide, rotenone, induces features of parkinsonism; mechanistically, rotenone-induced destruction of dopaminergic neurons has been attributed to its inhibition of the activity of neuronal mitochondrial complex I. However, the role of microglia, the resident brain immune cells in rotenone-induced neurodegeneration, has not been reported. Using primary neuron-enriched and neuron/glia cultures from the rat mesencephalon, we discovered an extraordinary feature for rotenone-induced degeneration of cultured dopaminergic neurons. Although little neurotoxicity was detected in neuron-enriched cultures after treatment for 8 d with up to 20 nm rotenone, significant and selective dopaminergic neurodegeneration was observed in neuron/glia cultures 2 d after treatment with 20 nm rotenone or 8 d after treatment with 1 nm rotenone. The greatly enhanced neurodegenerative ability of rotenone was attributed to the presence of glia, especially microglia, because the addition of microglia to neuron-enriched cultures markedly increased their susceptibility to rotenone. Mechanistically, rotenone stimulated the release of superoxide from microglia that was attenuated by inhibitors of NADPH oxidase. Furthermore, inhibition of NADPH oxidase or scavenging of superoxide significantly reduced the rotenone-induced neurotoxicity. This is the first report demonstrating that microglia play a pivotal role in rotenone-induced degeneration of dopaminergic neurons. The results of this study should advance our understanding of the mechanism of action for pesticides in the pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease.