Abstract
fMRI neurofeedback using autobiographical memory recall to upregulate the amygdala is associated with resting-state functional connectivity (rsFC) changes between the amygdala and the salience and default mode networks (SN and DMN, respectively). We hypothesize the existence of anatomical circuits underlying these rsFC changes. Using a cross-species brain parcellation, we identified in non-human primates locations homologous to the regions of interest (ROIs) from studies showing pre-to-post-neurofeedback changes in rsFC with the left amygdala. We injected bidirectional tracers in the basolateral, lateral, and central amygdala nuclei of adult macaques and used bright- and dark-field microscopy to identify cells and axon terminals in each ROI (SN: anterior cingulate, ventrolateral, and insular cortices; DMN: temporal pole, middle frontal gyrus, angular gyrus, precuneus, posterior cingulate cortex, parahippocampal gyrus, hippocampus, and thalamus). We also performed additional injections in specific ROIs to validate the results following amygdala injections and delineate potential disynaptic pathways. Finally, we used high-resolution diffusion MRI data from four post-mortem macaque brains and one in vivo human brain to translate our findings to the neuroimaging domain. Different amygdala nuclei had significant monosynaptic connections with all the SN and DMN ipsilateral ROIs. Amygdala connections with the DMN contralateral ROIs are disynaptic through the hippocampus and parahippocampal gyrus. Diffusion MRI in both species benefitted from using the ground-truth tracer data to validate its findings, as we identified false-negative ipsilateral and false-positive contralateral connectivity results. This study provides the foundation for future causal investigations of amygdala neurofeedback modulation of the SN and DMN through these anatomic connections.