Abstract
The ratio of oxidized to reduced NAD (NAD+/NADH) sets intracellular redox balance and antioxidant capacity. Intracellular NAD is compartmentalized and the mitochondrial NAD+/NADH ratio is intricately linked to cellular function. Here, we report the monitoring of the NAD+/NADH ratio in mitochondrial and cytosolic compartments in live cells by using a modified genetic biosensor (SoNar). The fluorescence signal of SoNar targeted to mitochondria (mt-SoNar) or cytosol (ct-SoNar) responded linearly to physiological NAD+/NADH ratios in situ. NAD+/NADH ratios in cytosol versus mitochondria responded rapidly, but differently, to acute metabolic perturbations, indicating distinct NAD pools. Subcellular NAD redox balance regained homeostasis via communications through malate-aspartate shuttle. Mitochondrial and cytosolic NAD+/NADH ratios are influenced by NAD+ precursor levels and are distinctly regulated under pathophysiological conditions. Compartment-targeted biosensors and real-time imaging allow assessment of subcellular NAD+/NADH redox signaling in live cells, enabling future mechanistic research of NAD redox in cell biology and disease development.