Abstract
We are currently facing a large decline in bee populations worldwide. Who are the winners and losers? Generalist bee species, notably those able to shift their diet to new or alternative floral resources, are expected to be among the least vulnerable to environmental change. However, studies of interactions between bees and plants over large temporal and geographical scales are limited by a lack of historical records. Here, we used a unique opportunistic century-old countrywide database of bee specimens collected on plants to track changes in the plant-bee interaction network over time. In each historical period considered, and using a network-based modularity analysis, we identified some major groups of species interacting more with each other than with other species (i.e. modules). These modules were related to coherent functional groups thanks to an a posteriory trait-based analysis. We then compared over time the ecological specialization of bees in the network by computing their degree of interaction within and between modules. "True" specialist species (or peripheral species) are involved in few interactions both inside and between modules. We found a global loss of specialist species and specialist strategies. This means that bee species observed in each period tended to use more diverse floral resources from different ecological groups over time, highly specialist species tending to enter/leave the network. Considering the role and functional traits of species in the network, combined with a long-term time series, provides a new perspective for the study of species specialization.