Abstract
We have developed generalized methods for electrical substitution optical measurements, as well as cryogenic detectors which can be used to implement them. The new methods detailed here enable measurement of arbitrary periodic waveforms by an electrical substitution radiometer (ESR), which means that spectral and dynamic optical power can be absolutely calibrated directly by a primary standard detector. Cryogenic ESRs are not often used directly by researchers for optical calibrations due to their slow response times and cumbersome operation. We describe two types of ESRs with fast response times, including newly developed cryogenic bolometers with carbon nanotube absorbers, which are manufacturable by standard microfabrication techniques. These detectors have response times near 10 ms, spectral coverage from the ultraviolet to far-infrared, and are ideal for use with generalized electrical substitution. In our first tests of the generalized electrical substitution method with FTS, we have achieved uncertainty in detector response of 0.13 % (k=1) and total measurement uncertainty of 1.1 % (k=1) in the mid-infrared for spectral detector responsivity calibrations. The generalized method and fast detectors greatly expand the range of optical power calibrations which can be made using a wideband primary standard detector, which can shorten calibration chains and improve uncertainties.