Conclusions/interpretation
4-HHE is produced in type 2 diabetic humans and Zucker diabetic fatty rats and blunts insulin action in skeletal muscle. 4-HHE therefore plays a causal role in the pathophysiology of type 2 diabetes and might constitute a potential therapeutic target to taper oxidative stress-induced insulin resistance.
Methods
4-HHE concentration was measured in plasma from humans and rats by GC-MS. Insulin resistance was estimated in healthy rats after administration of 4-HHE using hyperinsulinaemic-euglycaemic clamps. In muscle cells, glucose uptake was measured using 2-deoxy-D-glucose and signalling pathways were investigated by western blotting. Intracellular glutathione was measured using a fluorimetric assay kit and boosted using 1,2-dithiole-3-thione (D3T).
Results
Circulating levels of 4-HHE in type 2 diabetic humans and a rat model of diabetes (obese Zucker diabetic fatty rats), were twice those in their non-diabetic counterparts (33 vs 14 nmol/l, p < 0.001), and positively correlated with blood glucose levels. During hyperinsulinaemic-euglycaemic clamps in rats, acute intravenous injection of 4-HHE significantly altered whole-body insulin sensitivity and decreased glucose infusion rate (24.2 vs 9.9 mg kg-1 min-1, p < 0.001). In vitro, 4-HHE impaired insulin-stimulated glucose uptake and signalling (protein kinase B/Akt and IRS1) in L6 muscle cells. Insulin-induced glucose uptake was reduced from 186 to 141.9 pmol mg-1 min-1 (p < 0.05). 4-HHE induced carbonylation of cell proteins and reduced glutathione concentration from 6.3 to 4.5 nmol/mg protein. Increasing intracellular glutathione pools using D3T prevented 4-HHE-induced carbonyl stress and insulin resistance. Conclusions/interpretation: 4-HHE is produced in type 2 diabetic humans and Zucker diabetic fatty rats and blunts insulin action in skeletal muscle. 4-HHE therefore plays a causal role in the pathophysiology of type 2 diabetes and might constitute a potential therapeutic target to taper oxidative stress-induced insulin resistance.