Abstract
Thorns, spines and prickles are some of the anti-herbivore defenses that plants have evolved. They were recently found to be commonly aposematic (warning coloration). However, the physical anti-herbivore defense executed by these sharp structures seems to be only the tip of the iceberg. We show that thorns of various plant species commonly harbor an array of aerobic and anaerobic pathogenic bacteria including Clostridium perfringens the causative agent of the life-threatening gas gangrene, Bacillus anthracis, and Pantoea agglomerans. Septic inflammation caused by plant thorn injury can result not only from bacteria. Medical literature indicates that thorns, spines or prickles also introduce pathogenic fungi into animals or humans. Dermatophytes that cause subcutaneous mycoses are unable to penetrate the skin and must be introduced into the subcutaneous tissue by a puncture wound. The common microorganism-thorn combinations seem to have been an important contributor to the fact that so many plant thorns are aposematically colored, as a case of convergent evolution of aposematism in these organisms.