Abstract
Sex differences in motivation for food rewards, gambling, and drugs of abuse are modulated by multiple factors, including sensory stimuli, gonadal hormones, and cognitive bias. Cues, drugs of abuse, and a high-fat diet can significantly impact neural signaling in the reward system and functioning of neural systems that regulate executive functions differentially in males and females. Additionally, sex differences in risky decision-making, cognitive bias, and motivation for food and drugs of abuse are mediated by gonadal hormones in both sexes. As neuroscientists analyze data from both sexes, it is becoming apparent that these differences are not simply mediated by hormones in females, but involve sex differences in the specific neural responses to stimuli, including both external stimuli and internal hormonal signals. Understanding sex differences in the mechanisms underlying reward-seeking behaviors and the development of substance use disorders will help uncover potential therapies and treatments that will benefit both men and women. Based on these observations, it is essential that females are included in neuroscience research.