Abstract
Precision agriculture (PA) intends to validate technological tools that capture soil and crop spatial variability, which constitute the basis for the establishment of differentiated management zones (MZs). Soil apparent electrical conductivity (EC(a)) sensors are commonly used to survey soil spatial variability. It is essential for surveys to have temporal stability to ensure correct medium- and long-term decisions. The aim of this study was to assess the temporal stability of MZ patterns using different types of EC(a) sensors, namely an EC(a) contact-type sensor (Veris 2000 XA, Veris Technologies, Salina, KS, USA) and an electromagnetic induction sensor (EM-38, Geonics Ltd., Mississauga, ON, Canada). These sensors were used in four fields of dryland pastures in the Alentejo region of Portugal. The first survey was carried out in October 2018, and the second was carried out in September 2020. Data processing involved synchronizing the geographic coordinates obtained using the two types of sensors in each location and establishing MZs based on a geostatistical analysis of elevation and EC(a) data. Although the basic technologies have different principles (contact versus non-contact sensors), the surveys were carried out at different soil moisture conditions and were temporarily separated (about 2 years); the EC(a) measurements showed statistically significant correlations in all experimental fields (correlation coefficients between 0.449 and 0.618), which were reflected in the spatially stable patterns of the MZ maps (averaging 52% of the total area across the four experimental fields). These results provide perspectives for future developments, which will need to occur in the creation of algorithms that allow the spatial variability and temporal stability of EC(a) to be validated through smart soil sampling and analysis to generate recommendations for sustained soil amendment or fertilization.