Abstract
Increased trait responsiveness to the environment can provide short-term benefits but may induce delayed costs. Anurans (frogs and toads) provide an excellent system to examine phenotypic plasticity and developmental carry-over effects given their ecologically distinct life stages, which have distinct development and growth opportunities. Previous research has predominantly assessed phenotype at metamorphosis rather than within and across life stages. To address this knowledge gap, we reared wood frogs (Rana sylvatica) at two densities and assessed morphology and survival at multiple larval and post-metamorphic timepoints. As expected, the high-density rearing environment depressed early larval size and survivorship and delayed metamorphosis. However, compensatory growth-rate plasticity enabled high-density tadpoles to metamorphose at a similar size as low-density tadpoles. Regardless of rearing density, larval duration was negatively correlated with metamorphic mass for the earliest developers and influenced post-metamorphic survivorship and morphology, but we found evidence for a trade-off between compensatory growth and later-life survival. Our results reinforce the need to sample at multiple timepoints and life stages to understand interactions between phenotype and developmental environment. More broadly, this study contributes to understanding trade-offs and compensation associated with phenotypic plasticity, which will become even more critical given accelerating rates of global environmental change.