Abstract
Reproductive strategies represent a fundamental aspect of life-history evolution and are shaped by environmental heterogeneity across geographic gradients. This study investigated geographic variation in reproductive traits of the swelled vent frog (Nanorana quadranus), a stream-breeding species in China's Qinling-Daba Mountains. Male reproductive traits were assessed across 10 populations, including testicular asymmetry, relative testis size, sperm morphology, and sperm count. Female reproductive traits were examined in 12 populations, focusing on body mass and absolute fecundity. Results indicated no significant difference in bilateral testicular asymmetry (p > 0.05). Both relative testis size and sperm count increased with latitude. Sperm length correlated positively with testis size. Conversely, female body mass and age increased with altitude, while absolute fecundity was positively correlated with body mass. Environmental analysis revealed that sperm length exhibited significant positive correlations with aspect and seasonal evapotranspiration anomaly (SEA). Relative testis size was regulated by mean diurnal temperature range (Bio2) and precipitation of the wettest month (Bio13). Furthermore, female absolute fecundity correlated with the minimum temperature of the coldest month (Bio6). These findings demonstrate that reproductive strategies in N. quadranus adapt to geographic and environmental gradients, reflecting adaptive plasticity to local ecological pressures. This study advances understanding of amphibian reproductive adaptation and highlights the importance of incorporating environmental factors in life-history research.