Abstract
Animal teeth were amongst the most common materials utilised for personal ornament production during the Stone Age, especially in the Northern Hemisphere. The hunter-gatherer cemetery site of Zvejnieki (Latvia) (7500-2500 cal. BC) is a clear example of this, with more than 2000 animal teeth excavated from grave contexts. Animal tooth pendants from the site have received significant scholarly attention, largely focusing on their faunal identification, type of use, placement within graves, as well as aspects of their production. Considerably less attention, however, has been given to the process of extracting teeth and the corresponding physical traces this might leave behind. This is true for Zvejnieki, but also for teeth extraction for the purposes of personal ornamentation across early prehistory more generally. To address this gap, we have employed experimental archaeological methods to critically evaluate possible Stone Age techniques of tooth extraction from key ungulate species, assessing the diagnostic traces created on the tooth itself and on the skull or mandible. The results suggest that several different methods of tooth extraction are viable, but cooking animals using boiling or a pit method is highly efficient. These methods lead to high extraction rates with no tooth damage, while also rendering the meat from the skull edible and the bones usable for other applications, such as tool production. Our research provides insights into the relationships between different spheres of hunter-gatherer life and death at Zvejnieki, specifically the acquisition of game animals, their treatment, and how this interacts with the extraction and processing of materials for craftwork and food preparation. SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION: The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s12520-025-02260-0.