Abstract
AIM: To characterize the abnormal metabolic profile of all-trans-retinoic acid (ATRA)-induced craniofacial development in mouse embryos using proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy (1H-MRS). METHODS: Timed-pregnant mice were treated by oral gavage on the morning of embryonic gestation day 11 (E11) with all-trans-retinoic acid (ATRA). Dosing solutions were adjusted by maternal body weight to provide 30, 70, or 100 mg/kg RA. The control group was given an equivalent volume of the carrier alone. Using an Agilent 7.0 T MR system and a combination of surface coil coils, a 3 mm×3 mm×3 mm 1H-MRS voxel was selected along the embryonic craniofacial tissue. 1H-MRS was performed with a single-voxel method using PRESS sequence and analyzed using LCModel software. Hematoxylin and eosin was used to detect and confirm cleft palate. RESULT: 1H-MRS revealed elevated choline levels in embryonic craniofacial tissue in the RA70 and RA100 groups compared to controls (P<0.05). Increased choline levels were also found in the RA70 and RA100 groups compared with the RA30 group (P<0.01). High intra-myocellular lipids at 1.30 ppm (IMCL13) in the RA100 group compared to the RA30 group were found (P<0.01). There were no significant changes in taurine, intra-myocellular lipids at 2.10 ppm (IMCL21), and extra-myocellular lipids at 2.30 ppm (EMCL23). Cleft palate formation was observed in all fetuses carried by mice administered 70 and 100 mg/kg RA. CONCLUSIONS: This novel study suggests that the elevated choline and lipid levels found by 1H-MRS may represent early biomarkers of craniofacial defects. Further studies will determine performance of this test and pathogenetic mechanisms of craniofacial malformation.