Abstract
Growth differentiation factor 11 (GDF11), a secreted member of the transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) superfamily, has been reported to have the capacity to reverse age-related pathologic changes and regulate organ regeneration after injury; however, the role of GDF11 in fracture healing and bone repair is still unclear. Here, we established a fracture model in 12-week-old male mice to observe two healing states: the cartilaginous callus and bony callus formation phases. Our results showed that recombinant GDF11 (rGDF11) injection inhibits cartilaginous callus maturation and hard callus formation, thereby impairing fracture healing in vivo. In vitro, rGDF11 administration inhibited chondrocyte differentiation and maturation by phosphorylating SMAD2/3 protein and inhibiting RUNX2 expression. Notably, inhibition of TGF-β activity by a SMAD-specific inhibitor attenuated GDF11 effects. Thus, our study demonstrates that, rather than acting as a rejuvenating agent, rGDF11 impairs fracture healing by inhibiting chondrocyte differentiation and maturation.