Abstract
Probiotic biofilms have been beneficial in the fight against infections, restoring the equilibrium of the host's gut microbiota, and enhancing host health. They are considered a novel strategy for probiotic gut colonization. In this case, we evaluated the effects of various active substances from traditional Chinese medicine on Escherichia coli Nissle 1917 (EcN) to determine if they promote biofilm formation. It was shown that 8-64 μg/mL of oleanolic acid increased the development of EcN biofilm. Additionally, we observed that oleanolic acid can effectively suppress biofilm formation in pathogenic bacteria such as Salmonella and Staphylococcus aureus. Next, we assessed the amount of EcN extracellular polysaccharides, the number of live bacteria, their metabolic activity, the hydrophobicity of their surface, and the shape of their biofilms using laser confocal microscopy. Through transcriptome analysis, a total of 349 differentially expressed genes were identified, comprising 134 upregulated and 215 downregulated genes. GO functional enrichment analysis and KEGG pathway enrichment analysis revealed that oleanolic acid functions are through the regulation of bacterial motility, the iron absorption system, the two-component system, and adhesion pathways. These findings suggest that the main effects of oleanolic acid are to prevent bacterial motility, increase initial adhesion, and encourage the development of EcN biofilms. In addition, oleanolic acid interacts with iron absorption to cooperatively control the production of EcN biofilms within an optimal concentration range. Taking these results together, this study suggests that oleanolic acid may enhance probiotic biofilm formation in the intestines, presenting new avenues for probiotic product development.