Abstract
Predictive coding conceptualizes attention as a weighting of prediction error signals. However, empirical findings on how attention influences common markers of prediction error have been inconsistent, likely because these markers are typically derived from stimulus-evoked responses. To avoid stimulus-related confounds and isolate effects related purely to prediction, we investigated how attention modulates brain responses to unexpected stimulus omissions. Using visual-auditory couplings where the auditory stimulus was occasionally omitted, we recorded EEG responses that revealed a multistage omission response-from early sensory to later higher-level prediction error activity. Voluntary attention was manipulated along two dimensions: (1) toward the visual or auditory modality, and (2) toward the moment of stimulus presentation or sustained over time. Early sensory prediction error, reflected by the omission N1, was unaffected by any manipulation of attention. In contrast, later high-level prediction error processing, reflected by omission P3 responses, was strongly affected by directing attention: robust responses were elicited when attention was directed to the auditory modality-where the prediction had been violated-but these were markedly reduced or absent when attention was directed to the visual modality. These results suggest an attentional system that does not affect low-level sensory prediction error but is capable of influencing distinct stages in the processing hierarchy in service of task performance. This first investigation of how attention affects different stages of omission activity suggests that voluntary attention may modulate prediction error processing via specific neurotransmitter systems and demonstrates this approach's potential for reliably studying precision-weighting in the brain.