Abstract
BACKGROUND: The major greenhouse gas from ruminants is enteric methane (CH(4)) which in 2010, was estimated at 2.1 Gt of CO(2) equivalent, accounting for 4.3% of global anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions. There are extensive efforts being made around the world to develop CH(4) mitigating inhibitors that specifically target rumen methanogens with the ultimate goal of reducing the environmental footprint of ruminant livestock production. This study examined the individual and combined effects of supplementing a high-forage diet (90% barley silage) fed to beef cattle with the investigational CH(4) inhibitor 3-nitrooxypropanol (3-NOP) and canola oil (OIL) on the rumen microbial community in relation to enteric CH(4) emissions and ruminal fermentation. RESULTS: 3-NOP and OIL individually reduced enteric CH(4) yield (g/kg dry matter intake) by 28.2% and 24.0%, respectively, and the effects were additive when used in combination (51.3% reduction). 3-NOP increased H(2) emissions 37-fold, while co-administering 3-NOP and OIL increased H(2) in the rumen 20-fold relative to the control diet. The inclusion of 3-NOP or OIL significantly reduced the diversity of the rumen microbiome. 3-NOP resulted in targeted changes in the microbiome decreasing the relative abundance of Methanobrevibacter and increasing the relative abundance of Bacteroidetes. The inclusion of OIL resulted in substantial changes to the microbial community that were associated with changes in ruminal volatile fatty acid concentration and gas production. OIL significantly reduced the abundance of protozoa and fiber-degrading microbes in the rumen but it did not selectively alter the abundance of rumen methanogens. CONCLUSIONS: Our data provide a mechanistic understanding of CH(4) inhibition by 3-NOP and OIL when offered alone and in combination to cattle fed a high forage diet. 3-NOP specifically targeted rumen methanogens and partly inhibited the hydrogenotrophic methanogenesis pathway, which increased H(2) emissions and propionate molar proportion in rumen fluid. In contrast, OIL caused substantial changes in the rumen microbial community by indiscriminately altering the abundance of a range of rumen microbes, reducing the abundance of fibrolytic bacteria and protozoa, resulting in altered rumen fermentation. Importantly, our data suggest that co-administering CH(4) inhibitors with distinct mechanisms of action can both enhance CH(4) inhibition and provide alternative sinks to prevent excessive accumulation of ruminal H(2).