Abstract
Understanding the molecular and cellular changes that underlie memory, the engram, requires the identification, isolation and manipulation of the neurons involved. This presents a major difficulty for complex forms of memory, for example hippocampus-dependent declarative memory, where the participating neurons are likely to be sparse, anatomically distributed and unique to each individual brain and learning event. In this paper, I discuss several new approaches to this problem. In vivo calcium imaging techniques provide a means of assessing the activity patterns of large numbers of neurons over long periods of time with precise anatomical identification. This provides important insight into how the brain represents complex information and how this is altered with learning. The development of techniques for the genetic modification of neural ensembles based on their natural, sensory-evoked, activity along with optogenetics allows direct tests of the coding function of these ensembles. These approaches provide a new methodological framework in which to examine the mechanisms of complex forms of learning at the level of the neurons involved in a specific memory.