Abstract
BACKGROUND: One defining feature of various aggressive cancers, including glioblastoma multiforme (GBM), is glycolysis upregulation, making its inhibition a promising therapeutic approach. One promising compound is 2-deoxy-d-glucose (2-DG), a d-glucose analog with high clinical potential due to its ability to inhibit glycolysis. Upon uptake, 2-DG is phosphorylated by hexokinase to 2-DG-6-phosphate, which inhibits hexokinase and downstream glycolytic enzymes. Unfortunately, therapeutic use of 2-DG is limited by poor pharmacokinetics, suppressing its efficacy. METHODS: To address these issues, we synthesized novel halogenated 2-DG analogs (2-FG, 2,2-diFG, 2-CG, and 2-BG) and evaluated their glycolytic inhibition in GBM cells. Our in vitro and computational studies suggest that these derivatives modulate hexokinase activity differently. RESULTS: Fluorinated compounds show the most potent cytotoxic effects, indicated by the lowest IC(50) values. These effects were more pronounced in hypoxic conditions. (19)F NMR experiments and molecular docking confirmed that fluorinated derivatives bind hexokinase comparably to glucose. Enzymatic assays demonstrated that all halogenated derivatives are more effective HKII inhibitors than 2-DG, particularly through their 6-phosphates. By modifying the C-2 position with halogens, these compounds may overcome the poor pharmacokinetics of 2-DG. The modifications seem to enhance the stability and uptake of the compounds, making them effective at lower doses and over prolonged periods. CONCLUSIONS: This research has the potential to reshape the treatment landscape for GBM and possibly other cancers by offering a more targeted, effective, and metabolically focused therapeutic approach. The application of halogenated 2-DG analogs represents a promising advancement in cancer metabolism-targeted therapies, with the potential to overcome current treatment limitations.