Abstract
Accumulating evidence indicates a pivotal role for chronic inflammatory processes in the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative and psychiatric disorders. G protein-coupled formyl peptide receptor 2 (FPR2) mediates pro-inflammatory or anti-/pro-resolving effects upon stimulation with biased agonists. We aimed to evaluate the effects of a new FPR2 ureidopropanamide agonist, compound MR-39, on neuroinflammatory processes in organotypic hippocampal cultures (OHCs) derived from control (WT) and knockout FPR2-/- mice (KO) exposed to bacterial endotoxin (lipopolysaccharide; LPS). Higher LPS-induced cytokine expression and basal release were observed in KO FPR2 cultures than in WT cultures, suggesting that a lack of FPR2 enhances the OHCs response to inflammatory stimuli. Pretreatment with MR-39 abolished some of the LPS-induced changes in the expression of genes related to the M1/M2 phenotypes (including Il-1β, Il-6, Arg1, Il-4, Cd74, Fizz and Cx3cr1) and TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-4 release in tissue derived from WT but not KO mice. Receptor specificity was confirmed by adding the FPR2 antagonist WRW4, which abolished the abovementioned effects of MR-39. Further biochemical data showed an increase in the phospho-p65/total p65 ratio after LPS stimulation in hippocampal tissues from both WT and KO mice, and MR-39 only reversed this effect on WT OHCs. LPS also increased TRAF6 levels, which are critical for the TLR4-mediated NF-κB pro-inflammatory responses. MR-39 attenuated the LPS-evoked increase in the levels of the NLRP3 and caspase-1 proteins in WT but not KO hippocampal cultures. Since NLRP3 may be involved in the pyroptosis, a lytic type of programmed cell death in which the main role is played by Gasdermin D (GSDMD), we examined the effects of LPS and/or MR-39 on the GSDMD protein level. LPS only increased GSDMD production in the WT tissues, and this effect was ameliorated by MR-39. Collectively, this study indicates that the new FPR2 agonist efficiently abrogates LPS-induced neuroinflammation in an ex vivo model, as evidenced by a decrease in pro-inflammatory cytokine expression and release as well as the downregulation of NLRP3 inflammasome-related pathways.