Abstract
Viral infections caused by bacteriophages, i.e., viruses that kill bacteria are one of the most dangerous and common threats for bacteria-based bioreactors. More than 70% of biotechnology companies have admitted to encountering this problem. Despite phage infections being such a dangerous and widespread risk, there are no effective methods to avoid them to date. Herein, we present a novel technology based on nanoparticles that irreversibly deactivates bacteriophages and is safe for bacteria. Our method allows for the unsupervised protection of bacterial processes in the biotechnology industry. Gold nanoparticles coated with a mixture of negatively charged 11-mercapto 1-undecanesulfonic acid (MUS) and hydrophobic 1-octanethiol (OT) ligands are effective at deactivating various types of Escherichia coli-selective phages: T1, T4, and T7. The nanoparticles can lower the titer of phages up to 2 and 5 logs in 6 and 24 h at 50 °C, respectively. A comparative analysis of nanoparticles with different ligand shells illustrates the importance of the combination of negatively charged and hydrophobic ligands that is the key to achieving a good inhibitory concentration (EC(50) ≤ 1 μg mL(-1)) for all tested phages. We show that the nanoparticles are harmless for the commonly used bacteria in industry Escherichia coli and are effective under conditions simulating the environment of bioreactors.