Abstract
BACKGROUND: Parental care is indispensable for the survival and development of dependent offspring, often requiring a delicate balance of time and energy allocation towards offspring by parents. Among ungulates employing a hider strategy, deciding when and where to provide care while also maintaining a sufficient distance to not reveal the offspring´s hiding place is likely crucial in determining their fate. METHODS: In this study, we analyzed the timing and spatial distribution of mother-offspring interactions in roe deer females (Capreolus capreolus L.). We fitted roe deer mothers and their neonates with GPS-collars combined with a proximity sensor in south Germany to address the spatial and temporal distribution of mother-fawn interactions during the first two months of the fawns' lives. RESULTS: We observed variations in the distance between mother and fawn, which initially increased over the first month and then decreased as the fawns grew older. The timing of mother-fawn contacts was strongly linked with the circadian rhythm of the mother, aligning closely with their typical bimodal activity peaks at dawn and dusk. Furthermore, we observed differences in habitat use between mother and offspring, reflecting the mother's requirements for food and protection (e.g. greater use of forests, higher distances to roads), as well as the fawn's priority requirement for protection (e.g. higher use of unmown grassland). We documented variations over time, highlighting how these requirements changed as the fawn ages. Interestingly, during the initial two weeks, most of the contacts occurred in habitats that were particularly favored by mothers. However, as the fawns aged, contacts occurred increasingly often in habitats that were routinely used by fawns. CONCLUSIONS: Understanding the timing, frequency, and spatial distribution of mother-offspring interactions provides valuable insights into the care strategies of hider ungulates. The observation that mothers leave their fawns in agricultural fields during the first few weeks of life has strong implications for wildlife management, as this behavior constitutes a kind of evolutionary trap under current agricultural practices and mowing regimes. Whether females can adjust their maternal care tactics to these novel selection pressures in human-altered landscapes is likely key to predicting the population dynamics of this obligate hider.