Abstract
Chronic oxidative stress (OS) and inflammation are implicated in developing and progressing neurodegenerative diseases (NDs). The chronic activation of microglia cells leads to the overproduction of several substances, including nitric oxide and reactive oxygen species, which can induce neurodegeneration. Natural compounds have recently been investigated for their potential to protect cells from OS and to improve many disease-related conditions. Cardamonin (CD) is a bioactive compound in many plants, such as Alpinia katsumadai and Alpinia conchigera. The present study examined the effects of CD on LPS-activated BV-2 microglial cells. The cell viability results showed that the increasing concentrations of CD, ranging from 0.78 to 200 µM, induced BV-2 cell cytotoxicity in a dose-response manner. In the nitric oxide assay, CD concentrations of 6.25 to 25 µM reduced the release of nitric oxide in LPS-activated BV-2 cells by 90% compared to those treated with LPS only (p ≤ 0.0001). CD (6.25 µM) significantly decreased the cellular production of SOD (3-fold (p ≤ 0.05)) and increased the levels of expression of CAT (2.5-fold (p ≤ 0.05)) and GSH (2-fold (p ≤ 0.05)) in the LPS-activated BV-2 cells. Furthermore, on RT-PCR arrays, CD (6.25 µM) downregulated mRNA expression of CCL5/RANTES (5-fold), NOS2 (2-fold), SLC38A1 (3-fold), TXNIP (2-fold), SOD1 (2-fold), SOD2 (1.5-fold) and upregulated GSS (1.9-fold), GCLC (1.7-fold) and catalase (2.9-fold) expression, indicating CD efficacy in modulating genes involved in OS and inflammation. Furthermore, CD (6.25 µM) increased the expression of nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) and lowered the levels of Kelch-like ECH-associated protein 1 (Keap1), indicating that this may be the signaling responsible for the elevation of antioxidant factors. Lastly, the results showed that CD (6.25 µM) modulated genes and proteins associated with the NF-kB signaling, downregulating genes related to excessive neuroinflammation. These results imply that CD may be a potential compound for developing therapeutic and preventive agents in treating neurodegeneration induced by excessive OS and inflammation.