Abstract
In this work, aimed at developing biomass-based composite pastes for liquid deposition modeling (LDM) 3D printing, we investigated the tuning of the rheological properties of a cardanol-based epoxy resin through the incorporation of various fillers: microcrystalline cellulose (MCC), microfibrillated cellulose (MFC), and nanoclay (MMT). The thermal cross-linking of the amine-cured composite pastes was monitored by ATR-FTIR and DSC analyses, confirming complete conversion of epoxy functionalities. The rheological behavior of the uncured composites was studied in view of LDM 3D printing. Viscosity data were fitted with the Herschel-Bulkley model to determine yield stress (τ(0)), consistency index (K), and flow behavior index (n). Shear-thinning behavior with solid-like to liquid-like transition at relatively low strain (0.5-5%) was induced by the addition of fillers, with adequate structural recovery. MFC proved to be the most effective rheological and mechanical property enhancer but could not be used alone due to curing-induced shrinkage at high loadings. Partial substitution of MCC with MFC, instead, drastically increased viscosity and reinforced shear thinning while retaining solid-like behavior at rest and yielded the highest tensile mechanical properties. In contrast, partial substitution of MCC with MMT slightly improved the tensile properties without significantly changing the rheology. Overall, increasing the filler content improved the mechanical properties of the composites to an extent that depended on the type and amount of filler. An optimized formulation containing 22 vol % of MCC and 1 vol % of MFC showed promising properties for LDM 3D printing, exhibiting proper extrusion (τ(0) = 281.54 Pa, K = 855.43 Pa·s (n) , and n = 0.57), good shape fidelity, and, after curing, tensile modulus and strength equal to 5.34 and 1.31 MPa, respectively.