Abstract
A series of case studies, derived from Holocene palaeoenvironmental investigations, archaeology, and history, are used to analyze ancient natural hazards and their impact on societies. The evolution of societies is inscribed in geomorphology, as a close relationship exists between the landscape and humans. Four factors underpin disasters: time, space, type of society, and type of event. In some cases, disasters apparently caused civilization to collapse, but, in other cases, they have spawned innovations and led to more resilient societies. In the face of landscape change, our modern society should not be lured by technology and globalization, as these could become more sources of vulnerability than of prevention and mitigation. Changes always have a cost. Civilizations have always had difficulties coping with the element of surprise in a hazard; this will remain uncontrollable. If a natural hazard occurs in a restricted area of the planet, its impact may be felt worldwide due to our current great interconnectedness.