Abstract
Cancer stem cells (CSCs) represent a subpopulation of cancer cells that are believed to initiate and drive cancer progression. In animal models, xenotransplanted CSCs have demonstrated the ability to produce tumors. Since their initial isolation in blood cancers, CSCs have been identified in various solid human cancers, including oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC). In addition to their tumorigenic properties, dysregulated stem-cell-related signaling pathways-Wnt family member (Wnt), neurogenic locus notch homolog protein (Notch), and hedgehog-have been shown to endow CSCs with characteristics like self-renewal, phenotypic plasticity, and chemoresistance, contributing to recurrence and treatment failure. Consequently, CSCs have become targets for new therapeutic agents, with some currently in different phases of clinical trials. Notably, small molecule inhibitors of the hedgehog signaling pathway, such as vismodegib and glasdegib, have been approved for the treatment of basal cell carcinoma and acute myeloid leukemia, respectively. Other strategies for eradicating CSCs include natural compounds, nano-drug delivery systems, targeting mitochondria and the CSC microenvironment, autophagy, hyperthermia, and immunotherapy. Despite the extensive documentation of CSCs in OSCC since its first demonstration in head and neck (HN) SCC in 2007, none of these novel pharmacological approaches have yet entered clinical trials for OSCC patients. This narrative review summarizes the in vivo and in vitro evidence of CSCs and CSC-related signaling pathways in OSCC, highlighting their role in promoting chemoresistance and immunotherapy resistance. Additionally, it addresses methodological challenges and discusses future research directions to improve experimental systems and advance CSC studies.