Abstract
The insulin receptor (IR) is a type II receptor tyrosine kinase that plays essential roles in metabolism, growth, and proliferation. Dysregulation of IR signaling is linked to many human diseases, such as diabetes and cancers. The resolution revolution in cryo-electron microscopy has led to the determination of several structures of IR with different numbers of bound insulin molecules in recent years, which have tremendously improved our understanding of how IR is activated by insulin. Here, we review the insulin-induced activation mechanism of IR, including (a) the detailed binding modes and functions of insulin at site 1 and site 2 and (b) the insulin-induced structural transitions that are required for IR activation. We highlight several other key aspects of the activation and regulation of IR signaling and discuss the remaining gaps in our understanding of the IR activation mechanism and potential avenues of future research.