Abstract
OBJECTIVE: Ultrasound shear strain is a potential biomarker of myofascial dysfunction. However, the quality of estimated shear strains can be impacted by differences in ultrasound displacement tracking techniques, potentially altering clinical conclusions surrounding myofascial pain. This work assesses the reliability of four displacement estimation algorithms under a novel clinical hypothesis that the shear strain between muscles on a stroke-affected (paretic) shoulder with myofascial pain is lower than that on the non-paretic side of the same patient. METHODS: After initial validation with simulations, four approaches were evaluated with in vivo data acquired from ten research participants with myofascial post-stroke shoulder pain: (1) Search is a common window-based method that determines displacements by searching for maximum normalized cross-correlations within windowed data, whereas (2) OVERWIND-Search, (3) SOUL-Search, and (4) $L1$-SOUL-Search fine-tune the Search initial estimates by optimizing cost functions comprising data and regularization terms, utilizing $L1$-norm-based first-order regularization, $L2$-norm-based first- and second-order regularization, and $L1$-norm-based first- and second-order regularization, respectively. RESULTS: SOUL-Search and $L1$-SOUL-Search most accurately and reliably estimate shear strain relative to our clinical hypothesis, when validated with visual inspection of ultrasound cine loops and quantitative T1$\rho$ magnetic resonance imaging. In addition, $L1$-SOUL-Search produced the most reliable displacement tracking performance by generating lateral displacement images with smooth displacement gradients (measured as the mean and variance of displacement derivatives) and sharp edges (which enables distinction of shoulder muscle layers). CONCLUSION: Among the four investigated methods, $L1$-SOUL-Search emerged as the most suitable option to investigate myofascial pain and dysfunction, despite the drawback of slow runtimes, which can potentially be resolved with a deep learning solution. SIGNIFICANCE: This work advances musculoskeletal health, ultrasound shear strain imaging, and related applications by establishing the foundation required to develop reliable image-based biomarkers for accurate diagnoses and treatments.