Abstract
BACKGROUND: In 2012, Botswana introduced 13-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV-13) to its childhood immunization program in a 3+0 schedule, achieving coverage rates of above 90% by 2014. In other settings, PCV introduction has been followed by an increase in carriage or disease caused by non-vaccine serotypes, including some serotypes with a high prevalence of antibiotic resistance. METHODS: We characterized the serotype epidemiology and antibiotic resistance of pneumococcal isolates cultured from nasopharyngeal samples collected from infants (≤12 months) in southeastern Botswana between 2016 and 2019. Capsular serotyping was performed using the Quellung reaction. E-tests were used to determine minimum inhibitory concentrations for common antibiotics. RESULTS: We cultured 264 pneumococcal isolates from samples collected from 150 infants. At the time of sample collection, 81% of infants had received at least one dose of PCV-13 and 53% had completed the three-dose series. PCV-13 serotypes accounted for 27% of isolates, with the most prevalent vaccine serotypes being 19F (n = 20, 8%), 19A (n = 16, 6%), and 6A (n = 10, 4%). The most frequently identified non-vaccine serotypes were 23B (n = 29, 11%), 21 (n = 12, 5%), and 16F (n = 11, 4%). Only three (1%) pneumococcal isolates were resistant to amoxicillin; however, we observed an increasing prevalence of penicillin resistance using the meningitis breakpoint (2016: 41%, 2019: 71%; Cochran-Armitage test for trend, p = 0.0003) and non-susceptibility to trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (2016: 55%, 2019: 79%; p = 0.04). Three (1%) isolates were multi-drug resistant. CONCLUSIONS: PCV-13 serotypes accounted for a substantial proportion of isolates colonizing infants in Botswana during a four-year period starting four years after vaccine introduction. A low prevalence of amoxicillin resistance supports its continued use as the first-line agent for non-meningeal pneumococcal infections. The observed increase in penicillin resistance at the meningitis breakpoint and the low prevalence of resistance to ceftriaxone supports use of third-generation cephalosporins for empirical treatment of suspected bacterial meningitis.