Abstract
High resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS) coupled to either gas chromatography or reversed-phase liquid chromatography is the generic method to identify unknown disinfection byproducts (DBPs) but can easily overlook their highly polar fractions. In this study, we applied an alternative chromatographic separation method, supercritical fluid chromatography-HRMS, to characterize DBPs in disinfected water. In total, 15 DBPs were tentatively identified for the first time as haloacetonitrilesulfonic acids, haloacetamidesulfonic acids, and haloacetaldehydesulfonic acids. Cysteine, glutathione, and p-phenolsulfonic acid were found as precursors during lab-scale chlorination, with cysteine providing the highest yield. A mixture of the labeled analogues of these DBPs was prepared by chlorination of (13)C(3)-(15)N-cysteine and analyzed using nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy for structural confirmation and quantification. A total of 6 drinking water treatment plants utilizing various source waters and treatment trains produced sulfonated DBPs upon disinfection. Those were widespread in the tap water of 8 cities across Europe, with estimated concentrations up to 50 and 800 ng/L for total haloacetonitrilesulfonic acids and haloacetaldehydesulfonic acids, respectively. Up to 850 ng/L haloacetonitrilesulfonic acids were found in 3 public swimming pools. Considering the stronger toxicity of haloacetonitriles, haloacetamides, and haloacetaldehydes than the regulated DBPs, these newly found sulfonic acid derivatives may also pose a health risk.