Abstract
Despite mounting evidence of increasing micro- and nanoplastics (MNPs) in natural environments, food, and drinking water, little is known of the potential health hazards of MNPs ingestion. We assessed toxicity and uptake of environmentally relevant MNPs in an in vitro small intestinal epithelium (SIE). Test MNPs included 25 and 1000 nm polystyrene (PS) microspheres (PS25 and PS1K); 25, 100, and 1000 nm carboxyl modified PS spheres (PS25C, PS100C, and PS1KC), and secondary MNPs from incinerated polyethylene (PEI). MNPs were subjected to 3-phase digestion to mimic transformations in the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) and digestas applied to the SIE. Carboxylated MNPs significantly reduced viability and increased permeability to 3 kD dextran. Uptake of carboxyl PS materials was size dependent, with significantly greater uptake of PS25C. Fluorescence confocal imaging showed some PS25C agglomerates entering cells independent of endosomes (suggesting diffusion), others within actin shells (suggesting phagocytosis), and many free within the epithelial cells, including agglomerates within nuclei. Pre-treatment with the dynamin inhibitor Dyngo partially reduced PS25 translocation, suggesting a potential role for endocytosis. These findings suggest that ingestion exposures to MNPs could have serious health consequences and underscore the urgent need for additional detailed studies of the potential hazards of ingested MNPs.