Abstract
Globally, over three billion people rely on traditional solid fuels for cooking and heating, leading to significant household air pollution and critical public health concerns. While transitioning to clean energy carriers faces challenges of accessibility and affordability-especially among low-income, rural populations-alternative strategies like kitchen layout modifications and the use of ventilation fans may effectively reduce exposure to pollutants. Here, we analyze factors influencing the adoption of separated kitchens and mechanical ventilation and evaluate changes in human exposure to PM(2.5) under different kitchen renovation scenarios by conducting a nationwide survey of household kitchen characteristics in rural China. We found that although 82% of rural households have kitchens separated from other rooms, only 34% use mechanical ventilation. The adoption of ventilation fans is significantly influenced by income and education levels. We estimate that widespread implementation of ventilation fans and separated kitchen designs could prevent approximately 67400 premature deaths annually, resulting in a health benefit of about USD 19 billion per year-substantially exceeding the costs involved. These findings suggest that cost-effective kitchen renovations offer enormous potential for substantial health benefits and present a practical solution compared to the challenges of clean energy transitions in rural areas.