Abstract
Cardiovascular disease is the largest cause of morbidity and mortality among patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD) and end-stage kidney disease, with nearly half of all deaths attributed to cardiovascular disease. Hydroxychloroquine (HCQ), an anti-inflammatory drug, has been shown to have multiple pleiotropic actions relevant to atherosclerosis. We conducted a proof-of-efficacy study to evaluate the effects of hydroxychloroquine in an animal model of atherosclerosis in ApoE knockout mice with and without chronic kidney disease. Forty male, 6-week-old mice were divided into four groups in a 2 x 2 design: sham placebo group; sham treatment group; CKD placebo group; and CKD treatment group. CKD was induced by a two-step surgical procedure. All mice received a high-fat diet through the study duration and were sacrificed after 16 weeks of therapy. Mice were monitored with ante-mortem ultrasonic echography (AUE) for atherosclerosis and vascular stiffness and with post-mortem histology studies for atherosclerosis. Therapy with HCQ significantly reduced the severity of atherosclerosis in CKD mice and sham treated mice. HCQ reduced the area of aortic atherosclerosis on en face examination by approximately 60% in HCQ treated groups compared to the non-treated groups. Additionally, therapy with HCQ resulted in significant reduction in vascular endothelial dysfunction with improvement in vascular elasticity and flow patterns and better-preserved vascular wall thickness across multiple vascular beds. More importantly, we found that presence of CKD had no mitigating effect on HCQ's anti-atherosclerotic and vasculoprotective effects. These beneficial effects were not due to any significant effect of HCQ on inflammation, renal function, or lipid profile at the end of 16 weeks of therapy. This study, which demonstrates structural and functional protection against atherosclerosis by HCQ, provides a rationale to evaluate its use in CKD patients. Further studies are needed to define the exact mechanisms through which HCQ confers these benefits.