Abstract
Abnormal aggregation of α-synuclein is the hallmark of neurodegenerative diseases, classified as α-synucleinopathies, primarily occurring sporadically. Their onset is associated with an interaction between genetic susceptibility and environmental factors such as neurotoxins, oxidative stress, inflammation, and viral infections. Recently, evidence has suggested an association between neurological complications in long COVID (sometimes referred to as 'post-acute sequelae of COVID-19') and α-synucleinopathies, but its underlying mechanisms are not completely understood. In this study, we first showed that SARS-CoV-2 Spike protein 1 (S1) induces α-synuclein aggregation associated with activation of microglial cells in the rodent model. In vitro, we demonstrated that S1 increases aggregation of α-synuclein in BE(2)M-17 dopaminergic neurons via BV-2 microglia-mediated inflammatory responses. We also identified that S1 directly affects aggregation of α-synuclein in dopaminergic neurons through increasing mitochondrial ROS, though only under conditions of sufficient α-Syn accumulation. In addition, we observed a synergistic effect between S1 and the neurotoxin MPP+ S1 treatment. Combined with a low dose of MPP+, it boosted α-synuclein aggregation and mitochondrial ROS production compared to S1 or the MPP+ treatment group. Furthermore, we evaluated the therapeutic effects of metformin. The treatment of metformin suppressed the S1-induced inflammatory response and α-synucleinopathy. Our findings demonstrate that S1 promotes α-synucleinopathy via both microglia-mediated inflammation and mitochondrial ROS, and they provide pathological insights, as well as a foundation for the clinical management of α-synucleinopathies and the onset of neurological symptoms after the COVID-19 outbreak.