Abstract
Many fundamental insights into microbiology have come from imaging, which is typically synonymous with optical techniques. However, the sample preparation needed for many optical microscopy methods, such as labeling, fixing, or genetic modification, limits the range of species and environments we can investigate. Here, we demonstrate the use of electrical capacitance measurements as a non-optical method for imaging live microbial samples. In electrical capacitance imaging (ECI), samples are positioned in contact with a semiconductor sensor array, and localized capacitance measurements are made across the array. From these measurements, we generate textured images of a variety of microbial colonies. We determine that capacitance is correlated with local sample thickness by comparing ECI data to three-dimensional (3D) confocal scans. We further illustrate with ECI that a difference in capacitance signal allows microbial species to be spatially distinguished in co-culture conditions. In order to highlight the versatility of our system, we capture the cross-sectional development of floating pellicle biofilms in a liquid culture at millimeter-length scales during week-long time-lapse experiments. These novel results establish a new low-cost and portable platform, which can be used for spatially and temporally resolved experiments in diverse environments with a wide variety of microbial species.IMPORTANCEMicrobes live in diverse environments and occupy biological roles across many timescales. Investigating the full scope of microbial activity requires imaging systems appropriate to each context. Though optical microscopy is powerful, the use of light, lenses, and other hardware limits where it can be applied. At the same time, existing non-optical imaging methods are frequently destructive to samples and require extensive equipment. In this paper, we present a non-optical imaging system that is small, cheap, requires no sample labeling, and is compatible with a variety of microbial species. Our system uses semiconductor chips to measure the inherent material properties of a sample with spatial sensitivity, producing images of microbes contrasted against their environment and each other. Our technique captures label-free images with a 10-μm resolution on a pocket-sized device, enabling microbiological imaging experiments in new environments with new species.